வேப்பம் பூ சந்நி, மூர்ச்சை, ஜிம்மக தோஷம், வாந்தி, அரோசகம், நீடித்த வாதம், ஏப்பம், மலக் கிருமி இவற்றைப் போக்கும்.

வெண் குஷ்டம்
நீரிழிவு
நரம்பு தளர்ச்சி
மூக்கில் நீர்வடிதல்
தலையில் காணும் பொடுகு
சரும நோய்கள் 
வயிற்றுப்புழு அகலும்
பிரமேகம் 
காய்ச்சல் அகலும். 

வேப்பிலையினால் புழுக்கள், பெருவியாதி, மாந்தம், மகாவிஷம், சுர ரோகங்கள், அம்மை கொப்பள விரணம் ஆகியவை தீரும்.

கடைச்சரக்காகிய வேப்பம் பிண்ணாக்கு தீர்க்கும் நோய்கள்

சந்நிபாதம்
வாத சிரஸ்தாபம்
வாத ரோகம்
திரிதோஷம்
சலாதிக்கம் ஆகியவை போகும். 

வேப்பம் வித்து குஷ்டம், சர்ப்ப விஷம், சந்நி, சொறி, சிரங்கு, மூலம், ஏப்பம், மலத்திலுள்ள சிறு கிருமி முதலியவை போகும்.

வேப்ப மரம் சுரம், வாத கோபம், மூல கண மாந்தம், எரிகிருமி, வயிற்று நோய்ம் சிதறுகின்ற மலப்பேதி இவை நீங்கும்.

•  ஒடுக்குங் கடியம்மை யொட்டுநோய் தோஷபிணி 
  விடும்வேப் பிலைநீர் தெளி. 

• ஞயமாகச் சுண்ணத்தில் நற்சோப் பினையிழைத்து 
  இயல்பாக வையெடுக் கும்.

• நன்னாரி பேதானம் வேப்பீர்க்குக் குமிளும்
  பொன்னாயுண் கற்கண் டுடன்.

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 
syn. Melia azadirachta Linn.

      A large, evergreen tree, 12-18 m in height and 1.8-2.4 m in girth,     
    with a straight bole and long, spreading branches forming a broad     
    crown, commonly found throughout the greater part of India, and often     
    cultivated. Bark grey or dark grey, rough, reddish brown inside, with     
    numerous oblique furrows and scattered tubercles; leaves imparipinnate,     
    alternate, 20-38 cm long: leaflets 8-19, alternate or opposite, ovate-    
    lanceolate, oblique or sub-falcate, falcate-lanceolate, glossy, bluntly     
    serrate; flowers white or pale-yellow, small, scented, numerous, in     
    long, slender, very lax, axillary panicles; drupes green, turning     
    yellow on ripening, aromatic, oblong, or ovoid-oblong, smooth, 1.3-1.8     
    cm long, with a single exalbuminous seed.

      The tree is found apparently wild on Siwalik hills. It grows wild in     
    the dry forests of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Though     
    not a forest-tree, it is generally found to grow wild. In Andhra     
    Pradesh, most of the trees grow  from self-sown seeds. It is     
    cultivated all over India, especially in the drier parts of the     
    country, and has evidently become wild in many localities as an escape     
    from cultivation. The estimated data on the distribution of the trees     
    and collection of seed for its valuable oil (Margosa oil or Neem oil)     
    are presented in Table 1. The tree grows on almost all kinds of soils,     
    including clayey, saline and alkaline soils, but does well on black     
    cotton soils. It thrives better than most other trees on dry, stony,     
    shallow soil with a waterless sub-soil, or in places where there is a     
    hard calcareous or clay pan near the surface. It does not tolerate 
    inundation. The tree increases the soil fertility and water-holding     
    capacity, as it has a unique property of calcium-mining which changes     
    the acidic soils into neutral. It is a very useful roadside and     
    avenue-tree in dry and moderately dry climate and an excellent shade     
    tree during the hot season when other trees are bare. It thrives, as a     
    rule, where the maximum shade-temperature is as high as 49x, and the     
    rainfall varies from 45 to 112 cm. The tree has been employed for     
    afforestation of dry localities, for re-foresting bare ravines and for
    checking soil erosion, and also as windbreaks. It has also been used     
    for mixed cropping [Troup, I, 179; Gamble, 143; Christopher, Indian     
    Fmg, N S, 1970-71, 20(1), 38; Katyal, ibid, 1956-57, 6(1), 36; Ketkar,     
    Utilization of Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) and its by-products,     
    KVIC, Bomaby, 1976, 4; Lakshmikantan, First Circular Symp Role Neem     
    Indian Econ, New Delhi, 1972, No. NSI/RD/5(S)/71-72, 1-2-1972; Khan,     
    96; Mitra, C R, 3; Kaul, Indian For, 1957, 83, 375; Radwanski, World
    Crops, 1977, 29, 62; For Abstr, 1965, 26, 5116].

      The tree is mostly evergreen, except in dry localities where it     
    becomes almost leafless for a brief period during Feb-March and the new     
    leaves appear during March-April. The flowering is spread over Jan-    
    March in the southern parts of the country and later towards the North.      
    In Kerala, the flowering starts in the beginning of January; in Feb-    
    March in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh; in the first week of     
    April in central India getting progressively delayed in northern India     
    and Punjab, going up to first week of May in the sub-Himalayan areas.      
    The tree often has a restricted bloom during Aug-Sept in the plains of     
    Uttar Pradesh. The fruiting follows a similar pattern. The seed does     
    not retain viability for long. Care is needed in collecting the seed:     
    it should be collected from the tree when thoroughly ripe and sown as     
    soon as possible after collection (Troup, I, 179; Mitra, C R, 3; Khan,     
    96).

      The tree is a light-demander and in the young stages, pushes up     
    vigorously through the scrubby jungle. It is hardy but frost-tender     
    and does not withstand excessive cold, especially in the seedling and     
    sapling stages. It coppices well and produces root suckers and     
    withstands pollarding well. The young plants develop rapidly after the     
    first season. The rate of growth is fairly good, showing five rings     
    per 2.5 cm, giving a mean annual girth-increment of 3.2 cm (Troup, I,     
    180-83; Mitra, C R, 3; Gamble, 144).

      Natural regeneration--Under natural conditions, the seed ordinarily     
    falls to the ground during the rainy season and germination occurs     
    within a week or two. It reproduces naturally with tolerable freedom     
    (Troup, I, 180).

      Artificial regeneration--Although the tree can be raised easily                                     
    in the nursery and transplanted for afforestation  purposes, direct     
    sowings are reported to be more successful than transplanting. For     
    raising transplants and to protect the radicle from insects the seed     
    should be covered with a thin layer of soil, and sparingly watered.      
    The seedlings are fit for transplanting during the first rains, when     
    they are 7-10 cm in height and the taproot is 15 cm long, if larger     
    seedlings are required they may be retained for another year in the     
    nursery and transplanted early in the rains of the second season. The     
    stem and roots may also be pruned. In frosty localities, they are     
    protected by screens. Weeding without water also helps in promoting     
    growth. Loosening the soil to prevent caking and to promote soil     
    aeration is also beneficial. It can also be propagated from root- and     
    shoot-cuttings; application of growth-regulators (IBA and NAA) induces     
    root formation (Troup, I, 180-83; Krishnaswamy, 1956, 61; Shanmugavelu,     
    S. Indian Hort, 1967, 15, 70).

      The tree is not subject to serious fungal diseases. Fungi recorded     
    on the tree include Cercospora leucosticta Ellis & Everh., C.     
    subsessilis Syd., Fomes senex Nees & Mont., Polyporus gilvus Schw. 
    and Xylaria azadirachta Anahosur. Although many pests have been 
    recorded, the tree is not attacked by any serious pest; in some 
    localities porcupines damage the trees [Butler et al, 182, 258, 260; 
    Sarbhoy et al, 69; Indian J agric Sci, 1950, 20, 126; Joshi, 
    Agra Univ J Res (Sci), 1957, 6(2), 15].

      The sapwood is greyish white; heartwood is red when first exposed,     
    fading to reddish brown. The wood is dull to somewhat lustrous,     
    especially on the radial surface, aromatic but without any     
    characteristic taste, moderately heavy (wt, 705-945 kg/cu m), rather     
    uneven- and narrowly interlocked-grained and medium- to somewhat     
    coarse-textured. The wood is durable even in open situations. It is     
    not usually attacked by insects. The timber is medium refractory and     
    seasons well, even when converted from green logs. Boards, cut from     
    green logs, should be seasoned in open stacks placed under cover. It     
    is not difficult to saw and in this respect is about equal to teak. It     
    is very easy to work by hand and on machines and turns on a lathe to a     
    fair finish and lends itself for broad carving, but does not take     
    polish well. The data for the comparative suitability of the wood,     
    expressed as the percentages of the same properties of teak, are: wt.     
    124; strength as a beam, 87; stiffness as a beam, 81; suitability as a     
    post or strut, 82; shock-resisting ability, 105; retention of shape,     
    77; shear, 129; and surface-hardness, 131; nail- or screw-holding     
    property, 117 [Pearson & Brown, I, 235-37; Gamble, 144; Sekhar &     
    Gulati, Indian For Rec, N S, Timb Mech, 1969, 1(1), 25].

      The wood is used for furniture, carts, axles, yokes, naves and     
    felloes, boards and panels, cabinets, bottoms of drawers, packing-    
    cases, ornamental ceilings, ship- and boat-building, helms, oars, oil-    
    mills, cigar boxes, carved images, toys, drums and agricultural     
    implements. It is suitable for timber-bridges up to 5 m span. Trunks     
    and chests are made out of this wood and are pest-proof (Pearson &     
    Brown, I, 237; Mitra, C R, 5; Dastur, Useful Plants, 39; Lewis, 92;     
    Masani & Bajaj, Indian For, 1962, 88, 750).

      The destructive distillation of heartwood gave (dry basis): 
    moisture, 8.0; charcoal, 30.9; tar, 11.7; total distillate, 50.1; 
    pyroligneous acid, 38.4 (acid, 5.02; ester, 4.03) acetate, 3.46; 
    methanol, 1.03); pitch & losses, 0.6; and gas, 18.4%. The wood oil 
    contains ß-sitosterol, cycloeucalenol (m p 135-37°) and 24-    
    methylenecycloartanol. The heartwood contains tannin, nimatone     
    (C24H30O5, mp 137-38°); ß-sitosterol-ß-D-glucoside; 4, 14a-dimethyl-5     
    a-ergosta-8,24(28)-dien-3-ß-ol; 4a-methyl-5a-ergosta-8,24(28)-dien-3     
    ß-ol, and nimbolin A and B, nimbinene and 6-desacetylnimbinene and     
    inorganic  salt of calcium, potassium and iron. The wood contains:     
    a-cellulose, 65.27; ß-cellulose, 2.1; and g-cellulose, 6.49; 
    hemicellulose-A, 6.84; and hemicellulose-B, 7.2; and lignin (modified 
    Schorger method), 14.65% (Kedare & Tendolkar, J sci indusr Res, 1953, 
    12B, 217; Nath, ibid, 1955, 14B, 634; Ekong et al, J. chem Soc, chem 
    Comm, 1969, 1166; Chem Abstr, 1981, 95, 111715; Banerji et al, 
    Fitoterapia, 1977, 48, 166; Ekong et al Chem & Ind, 1968, 1808; 
    Bhargava, J sci Res BHU, 1954-55, 5, 72; Quasim & Dutta, Indian J appl 
    Chem, 1970, 33, 384).

      Almost every part of the tree is bitter and finds application in     
    indigenous medicine. Neem extracts have been reported to possess anti-    
    diabetic, anti-bacterial and anti-viral properties and they have been     
    used successfully in cases of stomach worms and ulcers. The stem- and     
    root bark and young fruits are reported to possess  astringent, tonic     
    and anti-periodic properties. The rootbark is reported to be more     
    active than the stembark and young fruits. The bark is reported to be     
    beneficial in malarial fever and useful in cutaneous diseases. The     
    extract of the bark showed mild inhibitory activity against certain     
    strains of watermelon mosaic virus [I.P.C., 32; Radwanski, Proc int     
    Neem Conf, West Germany, 1980, 274; Bhandari & Mukerji, East Pharm,     
    1959, 2(13), 21; Mitra, C R, 13; Kirtikar & Basu, I, 537; Tewari, Curr     
    Sci, 1976, 45, 696].

      The alcoholic extract of the fresh stembark yielded the bitter     
    principles: nimbin, 0.04; nimbinin, 0.002; and nimbidin, 0.4%. The     
    alcoholic extract of the air-dried rootbark yielded nimbin and     
    nimbidin. Another terpenic constituent, identical with sugiol, is     
    reported to be present in the stembark. Petrol-ether soluble fraction     
    of the alcoholic extract of the stembark yielded an essential oil     
    (0.02%), having characteristics similar to the oil isolated from the     
    blossoms. All parts of the plant yield ß-sitosterol (Indian Pat.     
    NO.13343, 1927; Bhattacharji et al, J sci industr Res, 1953, 12B, 154;     
    Mitra et al, ibid, 12B, 152; Sengupta et al, Chem & Ind, 1958, 861;     
    Narasimhan, ibid, 1957, 661).

      The stembark contains: tannin, 12-16; and non-tannin, 8-11%. The     
    trials on goat-skins were found to compare favourably with avaram-    
    tanned goat-skins in lightness of colour, feel and tanning strength.      
    The bark also yields a red dye (Thampuran & Mathew, Bull cent Leath Res     
    Inst, Madras, 1960-61, 7, 276; Kedlaya et al, Leath Sci, 1963, 10,     
    305; Krishnamurthi et al, ibid, 1977, 24, 95; Rama Rao, 72).

      The bark exudes a clear, bright, amber-coloured gum, known as the     
    EAST-INDIA GUM, which blackens with age. It forms into small tears or     
    vermiform pieces, and the surface is cracked or fissured. The tears     
    are soluble in cold water and are non-bitter. The trees in the drier     
    areas produce the gum very freely. In wet climate, the gum is liable     
    to be washed away or spoiled before collection. In Gujarat, the     
    annual production of gum is estimated to be up to 4,200 kg. The gum is     
    stimulant, demulcent and tonic and is useful in catarrhal and other     
    affections. Its adhesive properties are inferior to those of gum     
    arabic, though it is acknowledged as a substitute of Acacia gums. It     
    is used by the silk-dyers in the preparation of colours. Analysis of     
    the gum gave: moisture, 13.8;and ash, 3.0%. Purification of the gum     
    with alcohol gave a non-reducing gum having [a]21.5°D, -70°6'. On     
    hydrolysis, it yielded L-arabinose, L-fucose, D-galactose and D-    
    glucuronic acid. The aldobiuronic-acid component of the gum, obtained     
    by graded hydrolysis, was found to be 4-O-(D-glucopyranosyl uronic     
    acid)-D-galactopyranose. The presence of D-glucosamine and proteolytic     
    activity is also reported in the gum. The bark yields a fibre, locally     
    used for making rope (Howes, 1949-37, 58; Mitra, C R, 6, 12;     
    Information from the Deputy Cosnervator of Forests, Govt of Gujarat,     
    Rajpipla; Chem Abstr, 1940, 34, 6118; Mukherjee & Srivastava,Curr Sci,     
    1951, 20, 127; Mukherjee & Srivastava, J Amer Chem Soc, 1955, 77, 422;     
    Lakshmi & Pattabiraman, Indian J Biochem, 1967, 4, 181; Nayak et al, J     
    Biosci, 1979, 1, 393). 

      The twigs and leaves can be fed to cattle in conjunction with other     
    feeds; camels also eat the leaves. In Andhra Pradesh, they are     
    regularly fed to cattle and goats to increase the secretion of milk,     
    immediately after parturition. They are carminative and aid digestion.     
    They are used as mulch and manure. The leaves contain nimbin,     
    nimbinene, 6-desacetylnimbinene, nimbandiol, nimbolide and quercetin.     
    The presence of ß-sitosterol, n-hexacosanol and nonacosane is also     
    reported. Analysis of the mature leaves gave: moisture, 59.4; protein,     
    7.1;  fat, 1.0; fibres, 6.2; carbohydrates, 22.9; and minerals, 3.4     
    g/100 g; calcium, 510.0; phosphorus, 80.0; iron, 17.1; thiamine, 0.04;     
    niacin, 1.4; and vitamin C, 218.0 mg/100 g; carotene, 1998 µg/100 g;     
    and cal val, 129 Kcal/100 g. The amino acids present are: glutamic     
    acid, 73.3; tyrosine, 31.5; aspartic acid, 15.5; alanine, 6.4; proline,     
    4.0; and glutamine, 1.0 mg/100 g. Tender twigs are used to clean     
    teeth, particularly in pyorrhoea [Ketkar, 1976, 208; Troup, I, 180;     
    Dastur, Useful Plants, 39; Mitra, C R , 6, 9, 64; Christopher, loc.     
    cit.; Murthy, Indian Fmg, N S, 1957-58, 7(9), 9; Macmillan, 29; Basu &     
    Chakraborty, J Indian chem Soc, 1968, 45, 466; Chem Abstr,1981, 95, 
    111715; Awasthi & Mitra, Phytochemistry, 1971, 10, 2842; Nutritive     
    Value of Indian Foods, 69; Dakshinamurti, Curr Sci, 1954, 23, 125].

      The tender leaves along with Piper nigrum Linn., are found to be     
    effective in intestinal helminthiasis. The paste of leaves is useful in     
    ulceration of cow-pox. Fresh, mature leaves along with seeds of     
    Psoralea corylifolia Linn. and Cicer arietinum Linn. are used to     
    prepare a very effective medicine for leucoderma. An aqueous extract     
    (10%) of tender leaves is reported to possess anti-viral properties     
    against vaccinia-, variola-, foulpox- and New Castle-  disease virus.      
    The extract of leaf yields fractions which markedly delay the clotting-    
    time of blood. The strong decoction of fresh leaves is stated to be a     
    mild antiseptic. The hot infusion of leaves is much used as anodyne     
    for fomenting swollen glands, bruises and sprains. The shade-dried     
    leaves, on steam distillation, yield a golden yellow essential oil     
    (0.13%). The phosphate buffer, ether and alcoholic extracts of the     
    leaves inhibit the activity of Micrococcus pyogenes var. aureus. The     
    essential oil possesses marked anti-bacterial properties and inhibits     
    the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Micrococcus pyogenes var.     
    aureus, Salmonella paratyphi,  S. typhi, Vibrio  cholera  (sic)  Pacini  
    and Klebsiella pneumoniae (Schorter) Trevisan. The essential oil from 
    the fresh leaves has mild fungicidal action. A crude extract of the 
    leaves was studied for its effects on the  cardiovascualar system of 
    anaesthetized  guineapigs and  rabbits. The extract (200 mg/kg) 
    decreased the heart-rate of the rabbit from 280 to 150 beats/min. It 
    also exhibited a weak anti-arrhythmic activity in rabbit against 
    ouabain-induced  dysrhythmia [Mitra, C R, 64, 96; Tyagi et al, Nagarjun  
    1977-78, 21(4), 5; Basu, J Bombay nat Hist Soc, 1955-56, 53, 743; 
    Rao et al, Indian J med Res, 1969, 57, 495; Kirtikar &  Basu, I, 538; 
    Joshi & Magar, J sci industr Res, 1952, 11B, 261; Banerjee & Sanyal, 
    Proc Indian Sci Congr, 1956, pt. III, 348; Shrivastava & Singh,     
    Indian Drugs, 1981-82, 19, 245; Dictionary org Compds, V, 688; 
    Thompson & Anderson, J pharm Sci, 1978, 67, 1467].

      The leaves  are variously used as insect-repellent and to control     
    nematodes. They are kept amongst woollens and books to protect them     
    against pests. The dried leaves when mixed with the grains of wheat and     
    sorghum give excellent protection for a period of c 4-5 months against     
    moth (Ephestia cautella Walker), rice weevil (Calandra oryzae Linn.),     
    red flour beetle [Tribolium castaneum (Herbst.)], angoumois grain moth     
    (Sitotroga cerealella Olivier), and lesser grain borer (Rhizopertha     
    dominica Fabr.). They protect potatoes in storage. The application of     
    leaves (5-10% wt/wt) reduced infections by the root-knot nematode     
    (Meloidogyne sp.) of tomato, okra and brinjal. The leaf juice gave 25     
    per cent mortality in the case of larvae of lucerne weevil. The aqueous     
    extract of the leaves (1 kg/45 litre water) gives effective protection     
    to fruit, vegetable and cereal crops against locust (Schistocerca     
    gregaria Forsk.). A cold water extract of the leaves inhibits the     
    germination of spore of Diplodia natalensis Pole-Evans which causes     
    Diplodia stem-rot of ripe mango fruits (Ketkar, 1976, 155; Tandon, 
    J Bombay nat Hist Soc, 1954-55, 52, 225; Mitra, C R , 6,  96; Jain &     
    Pathak, Labdev J Sci Technol, 1970, 8B, 58). 

      The fruit is an ovoid, bluntly pointed, smooth drupe, green when    
    young and unripe, yellow to brown when ripe, with a very thin  picarp,    
    mesocarp with scanty pulp and a hard bony endocarp, enclosing one seed.     
    The pulp of the fruit is eaten by humans, birds and animals. The fruit    
    is  used as a tonic, antiperiodic, purgative, emollient and as an    
    anthelmintic. It is beneficial in urinary diseases and in the    
    treatment of piles. The dry fruits are bruised in water and employed    
    to treat cutaneous diseases. The pulp water when sprayed, protects    
    crops from locusts (Christopher, loc. cit.; Mitra, C R , 9; Radwanski,    
    World Crops, 1977, 29, 62; Information from the All-India Non-Edible    
    Oil Industry Association, Pune).

      The fruits contain gedunin, 7-deacetoxy-7a-hydroxy gedunin,    
    azadiradione, azadirone, 17ß-hydroxy-azadiradione (C28H34O6, m p 177°),    
    17ß-epiazadiradione (C28H34O5, m p 205°) and nimbiol.

      The seed after cleaning from the pulp is cream-white. When dry, the    
    seed coat is hard and brittle and it can be decorticated with ease.     
    The fruits are collected during April-Aug, the best period for    
    collection being before the monsoon. They are preferably hand-picked    
    to avoid dirt, and sun-dried and stored till Oct-Dec or even later.     
    The fully dried fruits both whole and decorticated, store well without    
    deterioration even up to one year. In South India, the fruits are    
    usually decorticated and the seeds stored whereas in North India, the    
    whole fruits are dried and stored. The seeds with remnants of pulp    
    should not be heaped for long as they become black due to auto-   
    oxidation. Storing of the seeds for three months is necessary for    
    optimum yield of oil. The seed on the average comprises 44.7 per cent    
    kernel and 55.3 per cent shell. The seed is decorticated in stone-   
    grinders or decorticators and the shells are separated by winnowing.     
    The greenish brown kernels constitute 35 per cent of the fresh fruit.

      The seeds contain six new tetranortriterpenoids, viz. 1a-methoxy-1,    
    2-dihydroepoxyazadirone, 1ß,2ß-diepoxyazadiradione, 7-acetylneotrichil-
    enone, 7-desacetyl-7-benzoylazadiradione, 7-desacetyl-7-benzoylepoxy-
    azadiradione, and 7-desacetyl-7-benzoylgedunin. They also contain
    azadirachtin which inhibits the feeding of locust (Sachistocerca
    gregaria) at the dose of 40 µg/litre. Azadirachtin at the dose of 0.75
    mg/kg body wt also delayed moulting from 23rd to 38th day of last
    instar nymphs of Periplanata americana Linn. with partial moult
    leading to death among both male and female nymphs [Kraus et al,        
    Phytochemistry, 1981, 20, 117; Mitra, C.R., 14, 112-27; Ketkar, 1976,
    5; Oils Oilseeds J, 1965-66, 18(3), 10; Kraus & Cramer, Tetrahedron    
    Lett, 1978, 2395; Lavie et al, Tetrahedron, 1971, 27, 3927; Chowdhuri    
    et al, Chem & Ind, 1958, 634; Butterworth & Morgan, J chem Soc, chem    
    Comm, 1968, 23; Dictionary org Compds, 1969, 80; Chem Abstr, 1971,
    75, 62502; Qadri & Narsaiah, Indian J exp Biol, 1978, 16, 1141].

      The powdered fruit or kernel when mixed with wheat, protects it    
    against rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae Linn.), lesser grain borer    
    (Rhizopertha dominica) and grubs of khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium    
    Everts) for c 9, 11 and 13 months, respectively. The extract of seed    
    acts as a gustatory repellent against rice weevil and flour beetle of    
    wheat. Crushed seeds (1-2%), when mixed with seeds of green gram    
    [Vigna radiata (Linn.) Wilczek], bengal gram (Cicer arietinum), cowpea    
    [Vigna  unguiculata (Linn.) Walp.] and peas (Pisum  sativum Linn.)    
    protect them against the bruchid Callosobruchus maculatus Fabr. For
    8-11 months. Pulses treated with either powdered neem seeds or their    
    suspension do not show any effect either in taste or smell after    
    washing and cooking. The kernels contain the triterpenoids, salannin    
    and azadirachtin having anti-feeding activity. Suitable formulations    
    for field application are being prepared. Neem kernel granules (5%) of    
    10/20 mesh size prepared by using China clay as carrier and gum Acacia    
    as binder, significantly reduced damage caused by stem borer, Chilo    
    partellus (Swinhoe) to sorghum and increased the yield of grain and    
    fodder. In preliminary trials, crude products of neem kernel exhibited    
    superior anti-feeding activity compared to  refined  ones. Absolute    
    anti-feeding property for Locusta migratoria Linn. was exhibited at    
    0.05 per cent suspension, whereas in Schistocerca gregaria there was no
    feeding even at 0.001 per cent. The suspension of kernel (0.1%), when
    sprayed, protects various crops of vegetables, cereals and fruits
    against locusts. The suspension (2%) also protects tobacco seedligns
    from damage by larvae of  Spodoptera litura ; in 0.3 per cent
    concentration it is  highly effective in retarding the growth and
    pupation of the larvae of Boarmia (Ascotis) selenaria Schiff. [Jotwani
    & Sircar, Indian J Entomol, 1965, 27, 160; 1967, 29, 21; Ketkar,
    1976, 153; Saramma & Verma, Bull Grain Technol,  1971, 9, 207; Pradhan
    et al, Indian  Fmg, N S, 1962-63, 12(8), 7; Res Bull IARI, N S, No.
    40, 1983, 19, 21; Jacobson, Proc int Neem Conf, West Germany, 1980, 35;
    Joshi  et al, Indian J agric Sci, 1978, 48, 19; Meisner et al, 
    Phytoparasitica, 1976, 4, 185].

      Kernel oil--The kernels yield a greenish yellow to brown, acrid,    
    bitter fixed oil (40.0-48.9%), known as OIL OF MARGOSA, having a    
    strong, disagreeable odour resembling garlic. The yield is equivalent    
    to c 23.5 per cent of the whole seed. The kernels from Sri Lanka have    
    been  reported to yield 59.25 per cent oil which is equivalent to c 31    
    per cent of the whole seed. The kernels are crushed in local crushers    
    (wooden ghanis) or expellers, giving 30-40 per cent oil. The local    
    oil-presses yield c three per cent less than the expellers. The    
    residual oil may be recovered by solvent extraction method. The oil is    
    sometimes extracted by boiling the crushed kernels with water. The oil    
    should be stored in well-closed containers, in cool places. The oil    
    has a high total tocopherol content (1.17 mg/g), made up almost equally    
    of gand d-form, with just a trace of ß-form. The crude oil is
    used as illuminant, although it smokes badly. The oil is simultaneously
    purified and refined by the separation of the bitter and odorous
    constituents by repeatedextraction with water-miscible solvents, such
    as dilute alcohol, methanol, dilute acetone or with a mixture of such
    solvents (Ketkar, 1976, 5; Mitra, C.R., 15, 112-27; Dutt et al, Indian
    Soap J, 1950-51, 16, 72; 1951-52, 17, 105; I.P., 1966, 324; Rao &
    Seshadri, Proc Indian Acad Sci, 1942, 15A, 161; Rao et al, J Sci Fd
    Agric, 1965, 16, 121; Mitra, Indian Oilseeds J, 1961, 5, 204;
    Mitra & Pandey, ibid, 1963, 7, 96; Mitra, J Oil Technol Assoc India,
    Kanpur, 1963, 18, 102).

      The refined and purified oil has the following characteristics: sp gr 
    30°, 0.9087; nD30°, 1.4612; iod val (Wij's),66.4; sap val, 290.9;
    and unsapon matter, 0.8%. The fatty acid composition of the oil is as
    follows: myristic, 0.2; palmitic, 16.2; stearic, 14.6; arachidic, 3.4;
    oleic, 56.6; and linoleic, 9.0%. The  component glycerides are:
    palmito-distearin, 0.2; oleopalmitostearin, 20.3; oleodistearin, 1.6;
    palmito-oleolinolein, 6.6; palmitodiolein, 26.3; stearo-oleolinolein,    
    3.6; stearodiolein, 24.9; and linoleodiolein, 16.5%. The refined  oil    
    is stable and does not become rancid on storing (Indian Pat. No. 46713,    
    1952; Gupta & Mitra, J Sci Fd Agric, 1953, 4, 44; Mitra, Indian    
    Oilseeds J, 1956-57, 1, 256).

      The oil has many therapeutic uses and is official in I.P. Medicinal
    properties of the oil are attributed to the  presence of bitter
    principles  and odorous compounds. The bitter principles are used in
    pharmaceutical industry. The alcoholic extract, after removal of the
    bitter principles, can be used as an agrochemical for the preparation
    of water-based pesticidal spray for common agricultural and
    horticultural pests. The oil is a useful remedy in some chronic skin
    diseases and ulcers. It is a common external application for
    rheumatism, leprosy and sprain. Intrauterine medication of oil controls
    different  types of metritis. The warm oil relieves ear trouble; the
    oil  also cures dental and gum troubles. A few drops of oil taken in    
    betel-leaf provides relief in asthma. The oil is reported to have    
    anti-fertility properties. It possesses antiseptic and anti-fungal    
    activity and is found to be active against both gram-positive and gram-   
    negative organism.

      Considerable quantities of the oil are employed in cosmetic    
    preparations such as creams, hair-lotions, medicated soaps, washing-   
    soaps and tooth-pastes; it can be mixed with other oils also for soaps.     
    It can be used for the production of olein and stearin, and high-   
    melting stearin after hydrogenation. The oil is also employed in    
    disinfectants and  emulsifying agents for insecticides. Regular    
    application of hair-oil containing oil of margosa is reported to    
    prevent baldness and greying of hair. The seeds also contain an    
    essential oil which has been found to possess anti-microbial activity.     
    When sprayed on green gram and bengal gram, the essential oil protects    
    them from pulse beetle and Callosobruchus sp. (I.P., 1966, 324; Mitra,    
    Indian Oilseeds J, 1956-57, 1, 256; Bhat et al, ibid, 1956-57, 1,
    298; Indian Pat. No. 48529, 48530, 1952; 59295, 1957; 67952, 1959;    
    Information from Dr C R Mitra, NBRI, Lucknow;  Kirtikar & Basu, I, 538;    
    Ketkar, 1976, 155, 212; Mitra, C.R., 100; Irvine, 1961, 512; Muralidhara,
    Indian Oil Soap J, 1967-68, 33, 298; Rama Rao, 72; Iyengar & Sastry,
    Mysore agric J, 1954, 30, 27; Chaurasia & Jain, Indian J Hosp Pharm,
    1978, 15, 166; I.P.C., 187).

      The bitter principles of the oil have been obtained by  extraction
    with alcohol in a yield of two per cent. Nimbidin (yield, 1.2-1.6%),
    the main constituent, is highly bitter and  contains sulphur. On
    hydrolysis it gave neutral nimbidinin and nimbidic acid. Besides
    nimbidin, two bitter constituents, free from sulphur, nimbin (yield,
    0.1%) and nimbinin (yield, 0.01%) have been obtained. The presence of
    gedunin, meldenin, desacetylgedunin, salannin, azadirone,
    epoxyazadiradione and a new minor product, vepinin (C28H36O5; yield,
    0.15%) is also reported in the oil. The oil also contains nimbinene, 6-
    O-acetylnimbandiol (C28H32O7, m p 121°), 6-desacetylnimbinene, 3-
    desacetylsalanin, salannol and 1,3-diacetylvilasinin (C30H40O7, mp
    157°).

      A study of the toxicity of nimbidin on frogs showed that the  average    
    lethal dose was esstimated at 0.25 mg/g body wt. Nimbidin inhibits the    
    growth of the fungi, such as Tenia rubrum, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium    
    oxysporum  and Alternaria tenuis, and is also found to be toxic to 
    some parasitic nematodes. Different preparations of nimbidin as an
    external application for the skin disorders showed good results.  
    Nimbin has been found to be antipyretic and non-irritant. It is
    recommended for use in high-grade paracosmetics.

      Sodium  nimbidinate, obtained from nimbidin, has potent diuretic  and
    anti-inflammatory  properties. It is highly active when injected, but
    may be effective in larger doses when orally given. When administered
    intramuscularly in congestive cardiac failure  with anasarca, good
    response was observed. It has also been observed to produce uterine
    contraction. It reduced blood  pressure in experimental animals.
    Nimbidin and sodium nimbidinate kill Paramoecium  caudatum in 1/500
    dilution: sodium nimbidinate, being water-soluble, is more active than
    the former. Sodium nimbidinate and sodium nimbinate are reported to
    have spermicidal activity (Siddiqui, Curr Sci, 1942, 11, 278; Narayanan    
    et al, Chem & Ind, 1964, 322; Mitra et al, Tetrahedron Lett, 1970,    
    2761; ; Henderson et al, ibid, 1964, 3969; Connolly et al, ibid, 1968,    
    437; Mitra et al, Phytochemistry, 1971, 10, 857; Chem Abstr, 1981,
    95, 111715, 25326; Narayanan et al, Indian J Chem, 1969, 7, 187;
    Lavie & Jain, J chem Soc, chem Comm, 1967, 278; Dictionary org Compds,
    1969, 80, 362;  Murthy & Sirsi, Indian J Physiol Pharmacol, 1958, 2,
    387; Gujral et al, Indian J med Res, 1955, 43, 89; Mitra, C.R., 92;
    Bhide et al, Indian J med Sci, 1958, 12, 141; Gaitonde & Sheth, ibid,
    1958, 12, 156; 1959, 13, 1038; Handley et al, Proc Soc exp Biol Med,
    1949, 72, 201; Mitra et al,Riechst Aromen Kosmet, 1978, 28, 44;
    Information from  Dr C.R. Mitra, NBRI, Lucknow).

      One of the by-products of the main constituents of the oil is    
    nimbidol. This fat-soluble, bitter and odorous fraction, obtained from    
    the mother-liquor of the bitter principles, is a mixture of nimbidin,    
    fatty impurities and the odorous sulphur-containing constituent.     
    Laboratory trials on rats have shown that the oil and nimbidol in a    
    dose of 8 mg/kg body wt possess anti-arthritic action (Dastur, Useful    
    Plants, 40; Mitra, Indian Oilseeds J, 1956-57, 1, 256;Information from    
    Dr C R Mitra, NBRI, Lucknow; Shankaranarayanan & Sirsi, Indian J Pharm,    
    1961, 23, 53).

      Pyrolytic degradation of the oil yields `pyronimin' a denaturant for    
    alcohol. The oil can be converted into `polyol' to substitute a    
    similar petroleum product (polypropylene glycol), used as a rocket-   
    propellent fuel. It can also be used in the textile and rubber    
    industry (Information from Dr C.R. Mitra, NBRI, Lucknow; Ketkar, 1976,    
    221; Muralidhara, loc. cit.).

      The Central Leather Research Institute, Madras, has developed a new    
    method of curing raw hides and skins with a mixture of organic compounds
    obtained from margosa oil. This method dispenses with the use of common
    salt which forms a major pollutant in tanning  effluents. The leathers
    prepared by this method do not deteriorate in quality during storage,
    and compare well with the leathers obtained from  wet-salted stock.

      Cake--The cake left after the extraction of oil is used as food for
    livestock, as manure, insecticide and nematicide. In Andhra Pradesh
    cake is given as a regular feed to cattle. Though bitter in taste,
    cattle get accustomed to it on regular feeding. The fresh cake smells
    bad, but the odour is lost on sun drying. The animals fed on this cake
    were  found healthy, and their yield of milk, good. For palatability
    jaggery can be added to the cake. The chemical composition of a sample
    of expeller cake from Andhra Pradesh was as follows (dry matter basis):
    moisture, 12; carbohydrates, 26; crude protein, 36; crude fibre, 9;
    fat, 9; minerals, 8; calcium, 0.8; and phosphorus, 0.8%. The cake
    contains 1.48 per cent potash. Analysis of the cake obtained from hand-
    screw press and expeller gave the following values, respectively:    
    moisture, 9.9, 9.1; oil, 18.2, 11.8; nitrogen, 5.8, 6.0; protein, 36.2,    
    37.5; carbohydrates, 17.5, 25.6; fibre, 11.7, 10.6; and ash, 5.8,    
    5.4%. The cake is rich in most of the essential amino acids, except    
    valine and tryptophan which are in negligible quantities. The keeping    
    quality is good and it is not easily spoiled on storage nor is it    
    attacked by fungi. The processed cake can be  employed as a good    
    poultry feed. Since the cake is bitter, it acts as a good appetizer,    
    it is also a vermicide.

      The residual bitter substances and odorous principles present in  the
    defatted meal from decorticated kernels can be removed by  extraction
    with ethanol or methanol. The meal on further processing and drying is
    obtained as a light straw-coloured granular powder of agreeable taste
    and flavour. It is suitable as feed for cattle and poultry. Analysis of
    processed meal gave the following values: moisture, 10.7; nitrogen,
    10.1; protein, 63.0; carbohydrates, 10.4; other organic matter, 8.6;
    ash, 7.4; P2O5, 4.9; iron, 0.2%. The amino acid make up of the meal is
    as follows: glycine, 9.4; alanine, 5.3; aspartic acid, 6.8; glutamic    
    acid, 11.8; serine, 7.6; threonine, 5.3; valine-methionine, 4.5; nor-   
    leucine-leucine-isoleucine, 8.0; arginine, 6.3; histidine, 3.4; lysine,    
    3.9; proline, 5.9; tyrosine, 3.4; phenylalanine-tryptophan, 5.3;    
    cystine, 3.1; glutamine, 1.6; and two unidentified ones, 3.9, 4.6%.     
    Protein fibres have also been manufactured from the cake [Information    
    from the All-India Non-Edible Oil Industry Association, Pune;
    Christopher, loc. cit.; Ketkar, 1976, 196, 212; Chandra & Shrikhande,    
    Agra Univ J Res (Sci), 1955, 4, pt I, 25; Prakash et al, J Proc Instn    
    Chem, 1953, 25, 31; Sinha & Gulati, Proc nat Acad Sci India, 1968,
    38A, 151;  Indian Pat No. 98150, 1968; Chem Abstr, 1974, 81,
    137507; Mitra, Indian Oilseeds  J, 1956-57, 1, 256; Mitra & Misra,
    J agric Fd Chem, 1967, 15, 697].

      The cake issued as a manure, but the doses differ for each crop. The
    alcohol-extracted cake is a better nitrogenous manure than  unextracted
    cakeand, by proper processing, manurial value may  be increased.
    Application  of the cake increases the yield of cotton; in combination
    with superphosphate, the yield is much higher. The cake is not only an
    organic nitrogenous manure, but is an inhibitor of nitrification. This 
    property helps in efficient use of the nitrogenous fertilizers. Urea
    coated with an extract obtained from the oil regulates the rate of    
    nitrification and increases the yield of grain and straw of wheat. The    
    pulp  water, obtained during the depulping of fresh or dry fruits, can    
    be used for manuring and for composting, and increases crop yields.     
    The pulp water contains: nitrogen, 1.2; and  phosphoric acid, 0.27%    
    (Ketkar, 1976, 29, 113, 7; Khandelwal, Indian J agric Sci, 1977, 47,
    267; Lakshmikantan, 1972; Information from the All-India Non-Edible Oil
    Industry Association, Pune).

          The cake gives protection from grain moth, lesser grain borer and
    red flour beetle. It reduces gall formation; it also helps in the    
    reduction of certain parasitic fungi, of the nematodes in the root    
    tissue and in the egg-laying capacity of the female nematodes. The    
    aqueous extract of the cake inhibits larval emergence of Meloidogyne    
    incognita and M. javanica; Pratylenchus sp. is also deterred by this    
    cake. Black scurf of potato can be significantly reduced by adding    
    neem cake to the soil. In combination with nemagone, the cake gives    
    better results than either of them alone. It reduces the occurrence of    
    nematodes in wheat and increases the yield considerably. When applied    
    to sugarcane, potato, cotton and paddy there is a similar increase in    
    yield. It protects crops from termites. A paste made from the cake or    
    the oil-emulsion, when applied to the trunk of orange or other Citrus    
    spp., protects them from pests. Tobacco seedlings are protected from    
    ground beetle when neem cake is applied at the rate of 50 kg/ha to the    
    crop. Azadirachtin and possibly other constituents present have been    
    found to possess systemic action, spreading to all parts of the plant    
    to which the cake is applied (Ketkar, 1976, 156, 173; Muralidhara, loc.    
    cit.; Lakshmikantan, 1972; Information from the All-India Non-Edible    
    Oil Industry Association, Pune; Sinha & Gulati, Bull reg Res Lab,    
    Jammu, 1962-63, 1, 176).

      The shell from the seeds can be used for the production of activated    
    carbon and toothpowder. It can be used as fuel and for manufacturing    
    briquetts  or hardboards. The powdered shells are used as  fillers in    
    thermosetting-moulding compositions (Ketkar, 1976, 7; Kumar &    
    Bhatnagar, Indian Pulp Pap, 1960-61, 15, 621).

      The flowers, generally dried ones, are eaten either raw or in curries
    and soups, or as a fried dish in South India. They are useful in some
    cases of atonic dyspepsia and general debility. The flowers provide
    plenty of nectar. The air-dried blossoms contain ß-sitosterol and its
    ß-D-glucoside, kaempferol, thioamyl alcohol (7.6%), benzylalcohol
    (9.67%), benzylacetate (8.2%), an unidentified alcohol (3.9%), and an
    essential oil (0.025%). Two of the three isomeric sesquiterpenes
    isolated from the essential oil are azadirachtene and margosene. The
    componet fatty acids present in the waxy material are: behenic, 0.7;
    arachidic, 0.7; stearic, 8.2; palmitic, 13.6; oleic, 65.3; and
    linoleic, 8.0%. A glycoside of myricetin (melicitrin) is also reported
    to be present [Christopher, loc. cit.; Mayuranathan, 63; Mitra, C R,
    56; Krishna & Badhwar, J sci industr Res, 1948, 7, suppl., 131; Mitra
    et al, ibid, 1947, 6B, 19; Mitra, ibid, 1951, 10B, 235; Nigam,

    Agra Univ J Res (Sci), 1963, 12, pt I, 299; Brochere-Ferreol et al,
    C R Acad Sci Paris, 1958, 246, 3082; Price et al, J chem Soc, 1938,
    281; Pankajamani & Seshadri, Proc Indian Acad Sci, 1952, 36A, 157;
    Chem Abstr, 1941, 35, 1403; Subramanian & Nair, Indian J Chem, 1972,
    10, 452].

      Some trees, especially near the watercourses exude a sap naturally    
    from the stem-tip. The sap is considered refrigerant, nutrient and    
    tonic, and useful in skin diseases, consumption, atonic dyspepsia and    
    general debility. Sometimes, it is made into toddy. The fresh exudate    
    has a strong smell of fermented liquor with the characteristic odour of    
    the tree; it is slightly sweet and contains: total solids, 12.5;    
    reducing sugar, 0.5; and total acid (as acetic acid), 0.8%. The amino    
    acids reported to be present in the exudate are: argenine, 15.2;    
    tyrosine, 65.0; tryptophan, 333.3; proline, 58.5; glutamic acid, 38.8;    
    serine, 17.0; and phenylalanine, 154.5 mg/100 ml. Trytophan content is    
    fairly high (Mitra, C.R., 12; Kirtikar & Basu, I, 538; Iyengar &    
    Sastry, loc. cit.; Bhattacharji et al, J sci industr Res, 1949, 8B,    
    187; Iyengar & Nagarajan, ibid, 1956, 15C, 279).

      The pollen-grains of margosa cause pollinosis to some extent
    (Shivpuri & Dua, Indian J med Res, 1963, 51, 68).

      It is estimated that India has about 13800000 neem trees
    with the potential to produce over 83000 tonnes of neem oil and 330000
    tonnes of neem cake from 413000 tonnes neem seeds. Single neem tree
    yields 37-50 kg fruits per year. Forty kilograms of fresh fruits
    yield nearly 24 kg of dry fruits (60%), which in turn give 11.52 kg of
    pulp (48%), 101 kg of seed coat (45%), 6.0 kg of husk (25%) and 5.5 kg
    of kernel (23%). The kernel gives about 2.5 kg of neem oil (45%) and
    3.0 kg of neem cake (55%). It has been reported that a 50 years old
    tree yield @ 51 kg fuel wood in arid areas of Rajasthan. The neem
    wood is generally considered to be highly resistant to fungi and
    insect attack and is durable even when used outdoors (Koul et al,
    Canad J Bot, 1990, 68, 1).
   
    Propagation - Transplantation of stumps is well known in India.
    These are prepared from 2 years-old seedlings and are subsequently
    planted in 30 cm3 pits. Root-ball transplantation is another good
    method where one year-old seedlings are carefully uprooted along with
    a ball of soil around the roots and transplanted as soon as possible.
   
      Apart from other techniques, tissue culture techniques have
    also been tried to propagate the plant and showed some encouraging
    results such as differentiation of growth centres in callus, root
    formation in MS medium containing IAA, and callus formation in some
    African progeny which may provide a basic for future research(Koul et
    al, Canad J Bot, 1990,68,1).

     The diterpenoids, margolone, nimbogone, nimbonolone and
    mimbolinin have been isolated from the plant(Hanson, Nat Prod
    Rep,1991, 54, 6).

      The ethanolic extract of the stembark contains two isomeric
    diterpenoids, nimbonone and nimbonolone; the methyl derivtive of
    grevillic acid, the grevillate;three new tricyclic diterpenoids,
    nimbosodione, nimbisonol and methyl nimbionol; phenols, nimbione,
    nimbinone and nimbionone;two fatty acid derivatives,(polyacetates),
    margosinone and margosinolone. The pentacyclic nortriterpenoids, 6-
    desacetylnimbinen, nimbiol, nimbinen and 6-desacetylnimbinen have also
    been isolated from the stembark. The methanolic extract of the bark
    also contains gedunin, which showed antimalarial activity against
    Plasmodium falciparum. The tricyclic diterpenoids, margocin,
    margocinin, margocilin and nimobinin and a tetranor triterpenoid,
    nimbilin have been isolated from the rootbark. These terpenoids
    exhibited antitumour, antileukaemic, antibiotic and insecticidal
    properties (Ara et al, Phytochemistry 1989, 28, 1177; 1990, 29,
    911; J Nat Prod, 1989, 52, 1209; 1990, 53, 816; Fitoterapia,
    1989, 60, 519; Van der Nat, J Ethnopharmacol, 1991, 35, 1;
    Hanson, Nat Prod Rep, 1991, 54, 155).
   
      The fresh undried winter leaves contain stigmasterol,
    nimbocinone, nimbocinolide, isonimbocinolide, nimocinol,
    isonimocinolide and isoazadirolide. The fresh green leaves yield
    meldenindiol, vilasinin, azadirachtanin, margosinolide,
    isomargosinolide, desacetyldihydronimbic acid. The dried leaves
    contain 4a, 6a-dihydroxy-A-homoazadiron, nimbinen, 6-
    desacetylnimbinen, 3-desacetylsalannin and 2',3''dehydrosalannol. The
    fallen yellow leaves contain isomeldenin. Nimbolide and 28-
    deoxonimbolide isolated from the leaves, showed significant cytotoxic
    activity. A new isoprenylated flavonone, 8-prenyl-5,7-dihydroxy-3'(3-
    hydroxy-3,3-dimethylbutyl)-4'methoxyflavanone (C26H32O6) has been
    isolated from the exudate of the resineous glands (Van der Nat, J
    Ethnopharmacol, 1991, 35, 1; Kigodi et al, J Nat Prod, 1989, 52,
    1246; Balasubramanian et al Phytochemistry, 1993, 34, 1194).
   
      The ethanolic extract of the leaves showed nematicidal
    activity Cephalobus litoralis (Akhtar) Andrasy. The leaves are
    reported to possesses antifertility property. The powder of the
    leaves at the dose level of 20 mg, 40 mg and 60 mg/rat/day for 24 days
    exhibited spermicidal activity. Leaves are said to be used as
    anthelmintic. In Nepal, two sponful of leaf juice mixed with an equal
    amount of honey is given twice a day for 2-3 days, to kill worms.
    Fresh leaves with common salt, 50 g each, are made into paste and
    given orally twice a day for 2-4 days to cattle as an anthelmintic.
    The aqeous extract of leaves exhibited antiulcer and anti-inflammatory
    activity. The water soluble portion of alcoholic extract of the
    leaves was found to possess significant blood sugar lowering effect in
    glucose fed and adrenaline-induced hyperglycemic rats but failed to
    show such effect in normal and streptozotocin induced diabetic rats.
    Freshly prepared leaf extract at low doses (10, 20, 50, 100 and 200
    mg/kg) produced significant antianxiety effect whereas at higher doses
    (400 mg and 800 mg/kg) it did not show the activity. The acetone
    extract of leaves  exhibited CNS depression, reduction of blood
    pressure as well as heart rate without showing diuretic activity
    (Qamar et al, Pakist J Industr Res, 1989, 32, 600; Vedavathy et
    al, Int J Pharmacogn 1991, 29, 113; Bhattarai, ibid, 1992, 30,
    145; Shaikh, Curr Sci, 1993, 64, 688; Garg, et al, Planta Med,
    1993, 59, 215 Alam et al, Fitoterapia, 1990, 61, 240;
    Chattopadhyay & Maitra, ibid, 1993, 64, 332; El-Hawary & Kholief,
    Arch Pharm Res, 1990, 13, 108; Handa, 1992, 63, 3; Jaiswal et
    al, Indian J. Exp Biol, 1994, 32, 484; Chattopadhyay et al, ibid,
    1992, 738; Singh et al, ibid, 1990, 61, 164.
   
      A new protolimonoid, naheedin along with azadirachtol, 7-
    desacetyl-7-benzoylazadiradion, nimocin, nimbocinol and nimbolicinol
    have been isolated from fresh ripe fruits. The ethanolic extract of
    fresh, undried and uncrushed ripe fruit coat yields terpenoids,
    limoicinol, limocinone, limocin, limocin A, limocin B, azadirol,
    kulactone, desfurano-azadiradione [7a-acetoxy-4, 4, 8-trimethyl-5a-
    (13aMe)-androsta-1, 14-dien-3,16-dione], 7a-acetoxy-4,4,8-trimethyl-
    5a-(13aMe)-17-oxa-androsta-1, 14-dien-3, 16-dione and 7a-acetoxy-4, 4,
    8-trimethyl-5a-17-oxa-androsta-1, 14-dien-3, 16-dione. The cold water
    extract of the fruit pulp yields 17-a-hydroxyazadiradione and
    arabinogalactan. The latter contains D-galactose, L-arabinose, L-
    rhamnose and D-glucoronic acid (Van der Nat, J Ethnopharmacol, 1991,
    35, 1; Siddiqui et al, J Nat Prod, 1992, 55, 303; 1991, 54,
    408; Phytochemistry, 1991, 30, 1615; 1992, 31, 4275; Sen et
    al, Indian J Chem, 1993, 32B, 862).
   
      On steam distilation seed yields an essential oil which
    contains, 2-methyl-2-pentenal, 31.2; 2,4-dimethylthiophene, 10.3; 3,4-
    dimethylthiophene, 10.5; cis -3,5-diethyl-1,2,4-trithiolane, 8.5;
    trans -3,5-diethyl-1,2,4-trithiolane, 14.1; dipropyl disulphide,
    3.3; cis -1-propenyl-1-propyldisulphide, 0.8; and trans -1-
    propenyl-1-propyldisulphide, 2.8 percent volatile constituents. The
    ethnolic extract of the seed contains tetranortriterpenoids, 17-
    epiazadiradione, 17ß-hydroxyazadiradione 22,23-dihydro-23-ß-methoxy-
    azadirachtin, 3-tigloylazadirachtol, nimbanal, ochchinolide B, 6-
    desacetylnimbin, azadiradione, niombin, salannin, azadirachtin A to K;
    3-acetyl, 1-tigloyl-3-acetyl-11-hydroxy-4ß-methyl-meliacarpin, 4ß-
    methyl azadirachtin, their analogues such as 1-cinnamoyl-3-feruloyl-
    11-hydroxy-meliacarpin (Mubarak & Kulatilleke, Phytochemistry, 1990,
    29, 3351; Rojatker, ibid, 1989, 28, 203; 1993, 32, 313; Van
    der Nat, J Ethnopharmacol, 1991, 35 ; 1, Govindchari et al,
    Indian J Chem, 1992, 31B, 295; J Nat Prod. 1992, 55, 596).
   
      The powdered seeds mixed with honey are reported to be given
    in piles by the local people in U.P. An aqueous solution of seeds
    showed antiviral activity against Okra mosaic virus. Defatted neem
    kernel powder at 1.0% (wt/wt of Sorghum grain) was found fatal against
    rice Weevil Sitophilus oryzae Linn. Azadirachtin at 0.1 ppm dose
    was found to reduce servival of early nauplii (N1-N3) Mesocyclop
    leuckarti s.1., a major vector of quinea worm disease. It has been
    recommended for treatment of potable water to kill the mesocyclops
    [Maheshwari & Singh J Eon Bot Phytochem, 1991, 2, 16; Atiri et
    al, Trop Agric (Trinidad), 1991, 68, 178; Champange, et al,
    Phytochemistry, 1992, 31, 377; Susha & Karnavar, Indian J Exp
    Biol, 1993, 31, 188; Mukherjee et al, Indian J Med Res, 1990,
    91A, 461; Mohan et al Neem News Letter, 1990, 7, 1].

      The nimbidin fraction of the oil contains tetranortriterpene
    alcohols, nimbocinol and 17-epinimbocinol. The tetranortriterpenoids,
    azadiradione, meliantriol, salannolide, nimbandiol, 4-epinimbin,
    nimbinen, 6-desacetylnimbinen, desacetylnimbin and 17-
    hydroxyazadiradione have also been isolated from the oil (Van der Nat,
    J Ethnopharmacol, 1991, 35, 1; Gaikwad, et al, Phytochemistry,
    1990, 29, 3963; Siddiqui et al, J Nat Prod, 1992, 55, 303).
   
      Neem oil has been found to be effective in preventing the
    multiplication of HIV-virus which causes AIDS. The oil is also
    reported to be a potent contraceptive. The emulsified oil     is to
    control rust and powdery meldew in plants (East Pharmac, 1992, 35,
    79; Stanley, Agric Res Wash, 1991, 39, 21).
   
      A colourless, odourless and nonbitter edible oil has been
    extracted from neem oil by removing sulpher compounds that cause
    bitterness. A two stage process to extract both azadirachtin and
    edible oil from the crude neem oil has been developed at the Central
    Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore. Its fatty acid content
    is higher than that of palm oil (Res & Industr, 1993, 38, 283).
   
      The flower contains cholesterol and nimbin (Van der Nat, J
    Ethnopharmacol, 1991, 35, 1).
   
      When the oil is given as an anthelmintic to humans it
    produces nausea and general discomfort. There are some indications
    that the oil may be involved in the etiology of Reyes syndrome,
    possibly because of a synergistic effect of aflatoxins in the oil
    (Koul, et al, Canad J Bot, 1990,  68, 1).

Cosmetics and toiletary products: 
    
      The major use of neem oil is in the soap industry. Soaps
    and shampoos prepared from neem oil control ticks and fleas. An
    Ayurvedic neem shampoo is used for greasy scalp. An Ayurvedic prickly
    heat powder is also made from neem. A neem face pack is prepared for
    oily and pimple-prone skin. Tooth powder and toothpaste prepared from
    neem are effective  dentifrice. Patented extract of neem bark Silvose
    T and Silvose TRS are used as toothpaste and mouth wash, respectively
    (Koul et al, Canad J Bot, 1990, 68, 1). 
    
    Medicines  Neem has been in use as indigenous medicine since time
    immemorial. Recently a large number of medicines manufactured from
    neem has come up in the form of ointments, tablets or injections, etc
    for curing various ailments. An ointment is prepared from neem for
    dermatological use. Another neem cream is a fly and mosquito
    repellent. A wound dressing contains neem oil as one of its active
    ingredients. It is recommended for only for animals. Neem leaf
    decoction is used as a galactogogue for initiating milk secretion in
    nursing mothers and also recommended for diabetes mellitus of adults,
    nonketonic diabetes, as well as in cases of insulin sensivity. 
    Tablets and injections are being formulated for chronic malaria. A
    neem leaf preparation is also recommended as a local sedative for
    external applications.

Insecticides and Pesticides: 
    
      Neemrich I and Neemrich II developed by the National
    Chemical Laboratory, Pune, from neem seed act as repellent against the
    potato tuber moth. Vepacide, a highly antifedant and insect growth
    regulator has been developed by the Indian Institute of Chemical
    Technology, Hyderabad. It can be used against armyworm (Mythimnia
    separata Walk.), spoted stem borer (Chilo partellus Swin), Cotton
    grey weevil (Myllocerus sp.), head bug (Calocoris angustatus );
    and Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura Fab.) (Research &
    Industry, 1992, 37, 253, 1989, 34, 246).

The tree grows on almost all kinds of soils, including clayey, saline and alkaline soils, but does well on black cotton soils. It thrives better than most other trees on dry, stony, shallow soil with a waterless sub-soil, or in places where there is a hard calcareous or clay pan near the surface. It does not tolerate inundation. The tree increases the soil fertility and water-holding capacity, as it has a unique property of calcium-mining which changes the acidic soils into neutral. It is a very useful roadside and avenue-tree in dry and moderately dry climate and an excellent shade tree during the hot season when other trees are bare. It thrives, as a rule, where the maximum shade-temperature is as high as 49x, and the rainfall varies from 45 to 112 cm. The tree has been employed for afforestation of dry localities, for re-foresting bare ravines and for checking soil erosion, and also as windbreaks. It has also been used for mixed cropping [Troup, I, 179; Gamble, 143; Christopher, Indian Fmg, N S, 1970-71, 20(1), 38; Katyal, ibid, 1956-57, 6(1), 36; Ketkar, Utilization of Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) and its by-products, KVIC, Bomaby, 1976, 4; Lakshmikantan, First Circular Symp Role Neem Indian Econ, New Delhi, 1972, No. NSI/RD/5(S)/71-72, 1-2-1972; Khan, 96; Mitra, C R, 3; Kaul, Indian For, 1957, 83, 375; Radwanski, World Crops, 1977, 29, 62; For Abstr, 1965, 26, 5116].

The tree is found apparently wild on Siwalik hills. It grows wild in the dry forests of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Though not a forest-tree, it is generally found to grow wild. In Andhra Pradesh, most of the trees grow from self-sown seeds. It is cultivated all over India, especially in the drier parts of the country, and has evidently become wild in many localities as an escape from cultivation.

The tree is mostly evergreen, except in dry localities where it becomes almost leafless for a brief period during Feb-March and the new leaves appear during March-April. The flowering is spread over Jan- March in the southern parts of the country and later towards the North. In Kerala, the flowering starts in the beginning of January; in Feb- March in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh; in the first week of April in central India getting progressively delayed in northern India and Punjab, going up to first week of May in the sub-Himalayan areas. The tree often has a restricted bloom during Aug-Sept in the plains of Uttar Pradesh. The fruiting follows a similar pattern. The seed does not retain viability for long. Care is needed in collecting the seed: it should be collected from the tree when thoroughly ripe and sown as soon as possible after collection (Troup, I, 179; Mitra, C R, 3; Khan, The tree is a light-demander and in the young stages, pushes up vigorously through the scrubby jungle. It is hardy but frost-tender and does not withstand excessive cold, especially in the seedling and sapling stages. It coppices well and produces root suckers and withstands pollarding well. The young plants develop rapidly after the first season. The rate of growth is fairly good, showing five rings per 2.5 cm, giving a mean annual girth-increment of 3.2 cm (Troup, I, 180-83; Mitra, C R, 3; Gamble, 144).

Under natural conditions, the seed ordinarily falls to the ground during the rainy season and germination occurs within a week or two. It reproduces naturally with tolerable freedom (Troup, I, 180).

Although the tree can be raised easilyin the nursery and transplanted for afforestation purposes, direct sowings are reported to be more successful than transplanting. For raising transplants and to protect the radicle from insects the seed should be covered with a thin layer of soil, and sparingly watered. The seedlings are fit for transplanting during the first rains, when they are 7-10 cm in height and the taproot is 15 cm long, if larger seedlings are required they may be retained for another year in the nursery and transplanted early in the rains of the second season. The stem and roots may also be pruned. In frosty localities, they are protected by screens. Weeding without water also helps in promoting growth. Loosening the soil to prevent caking and to promote soil aeration is also beneficial. It can also be propagated from root- and shoot-cuttings; application of growth-regulators (IBA and NAA) induces root formation (Troup, I, 180-83; Krishnaswamy, 1956, 61; Shanmugavelu, S. Indian Hort, 1967, 15, 70).

The tree is not subject to serious fungal diseases. Fungi recorded on the tree include Cercospora leucosticta Ellis & Everh., C. subsessilis Syd., Fomes senex Nees & Mont., Polyporus gilvus Schw. and Xylaria azadirachta Anahosur. Although many pests have been recorded, the tree is not attacked by any serious pest; in some localities porcupines damage the trees [Butler et al, 182, 258, 260; Sarbhoy et al, 69; Indian J agric Sci, 1950, 20, 126; Joshi, Agra Univ J Res (Sci), 1957, 6(2), 15].

The wood is used for furniture, carts, axles, yokes, naves and felloes, boards and panels, cabinets, bottoms of drawers, packing- cases, ornamental ceilings, ship- and boat-building, helms, oars, oil- mills, cigar boxes, carved images, toys, drums and agricultural implements. It is suitable for timber-bridges up to 5 m span. Trunks and chests are made out of this wood and are pest-proof (Pearson & Brown, I, 237; Mitra, C R, 5; Dastur, Useful Plants, 39; Lewis, 92; Masani & Bajaj, Indian For, 1962, 88, 750).

The destructive distillation of heartwood gave (dry basis): moisture, 8.0; charcoal, 30.9; tar, 11.7; total distillate, 50.1; pyroligneous acid, 38.4 (acid, 5.02; ester, 4.03) acetate, 3.46; methanol, 1.03); pitch & losses, 0.6; and gas, 18.4%. The wood oil contains ß-sitosterol, cycloeucalenol (m p 135-37°) and 24- methylenecycloartanol. The heartwood contains tannin, nimatone (C24H30O5, mp 137-38°); ß-sitosterol-ß-D-glucoside; 4, 14a-dimethyl-5 a-ergosta-8,24(28)-dien-3-ß-ol; 4a-methyl-5a-ergosta-8,24(28)-dien-3 ß-ol, and nimbolin A and B, nimbinene and 6-desacetylnimbinene and inorganic salt of calcium, potassium and iron. The wood contains: a-cellulose, 65.27; ß-cellulose, 2.1; and g-cellulose, 6.49; hemicellulose-A, 6.84; and hemicellulose-B, 7.2; and lignin (modified Schorger method), 14.65% (Kedare & Tendolkar, J sci indusr Res, 1953, 12B, 217; Nath, ibid, 1955, 14B, 634; Ekong et al, J. chem Soc, chem Comm, 1969, 1166; Chem Abstr, 1981, 95, 111715; Banerji et al, Fitoterapia, 1977, 48, 166; Ekong et al Chem & Ind, 1968, 1808; Bhargava, J sci Res BHU, 1954-55, 5, 72; Quasim & Dutta, Indian J appl Chem, 1970, 33, 384).

Almost every part of the tree is bitter and finds application in indigenous medicine. Neem extracts have been reported to possess anti- diabetic, anti-bacterial and anti-viral properties and they have been used successfully in cases of stomach worms and ulcers. The stem- and root bark and young fruits are reported to possess astringent, tonic and anti-periodic properties. The rootbark is reported to be more active than the stembark and young fruits. The bark is reported to be beneficial in malarial fever and useful in cutaneous diseases. The extract of the bark showed mild inhibitory activity against certain strains of watermelon mosaic virus [I.P.C., 32; Radwanski, Proc int Neem Conf, West Germany, 1980, 274; Bhandari & Mukerji, East Pharm, 1959, 2(13), 21; Mitra, C R, 13; Kirtikar & Basu, I, 537; Tewari, Curr Sci, 1976, 45, 696].

The fruits contain gedunin, 7-deacetoxy-7a-hydroxy gedunin,
azadiradione, azadirone, 17ß-hydroxy-azadiradione (C28H34O6, m p 177°),
17ß-epiazadiradione (C28H34O5, m p 205°) and nimbiol.

The seed after cleaning from the pulp is cream-white. When dry, the
seed coat is hard and brittle and it can be decorticated with ease.
The fruits are collected during April-Aug, the best period for
collection being before the monsoon. They are preferably hand-picked
to avoid dirt, and sun-dried and stored till Oct-Dec or even later.
The fully dried fruits both whole and decorticated, store well without
deterioration even up to one year. In South India, the fruits are
usually decorticated and the seeds stored whereas in North India, the
whole fruits are dried and stored. The seeds with remnants of pulp
should not be heaped for long as they become black due to auto-
oxidation. Storing of the seeds for three months is necessary for
optimum yield of oil. The seed on the average comprises 44.7 per cent
kernel and 55.3 per cent shell. The seed is decorticated in stone-
grinders or decorticators and the shells are separated by winnowing.
The greenish brown kernels constitute 35 per cent of the fresh fruit.

The seeds contain six new tetranortriterpenoids, viz. 1a-methoxy-1,
2-dihydroepoxyazadirone, 1ß,2ß-diepoxyazadiradione, 7-acetylneotrichil-
enone, 7-desacetyl-7-benzoylazadiradione, 7-desacetyl-7-benzoylepoxy-
azadiradione, and 7-desacetyl-7-benzoylgedunin. They also contain
azadirachtin which inhibits the feeding of locust (Sachistocerca
gregaria) at the dose of 40 µg/litre. Azadirachtin at the dose of 0.75
mg/kg body wt also delayed moulting from 23rd to 38th day of last
instar nymphs of Periplanata americana Linn. with partial moult
leading to death among both male and female nymphs [Kraus et al,
Phytochemistry, 1981, 20, 117; Mitra, C.R., 14, 112-27; Ketkar, 1976,
5; Oils Oilseeds J, 1965-66, 18(3), 10; Kraus & Cramer, Tetrahedron
Lett, 1978, 2395; Lavie et al, Tetrahedron, 1971, 27, 3927; Chowdhuri
et al, Chem & Ind, 1958, 634; Butterworth & Morgan, J chem Soc, chem
Comm, 1968, 23; Dictionary org Compds, 1969, 80; Chem Abstr, 1971,
75, 62502; Qadri & Narsaiah, Indian J exp Biol, 1978, 16, 1141].

The flowers, generally dried ones, are eaten either raw or in curries
and soups, or as a fried dish in South India. They are useful in some
cases of atonic dyspepsia and general debility. The flowers provide
plenty of nectar. The air-dried blossoms contain ß-sitosterol and its
ß-D-glucoside, kaempferol, thioamyl alcohol (7.6%), benzylalcohol
(9.67%), benzylacetate (8.2%), an unidentified alcohol (3.9%), and an
essential oil (0.025%). Two of the three isomeric sesquiterpenes
isolated from the essential oil are azadirachtene and margosene. The
componet fatty acids present in the waxy material are: behenic, 0.7;
arachidic, 0.7; stearic, 8.2; palmitic, 13.6; oleic, 65.3; and
linoleic, 8.0%. A glycoside of myricetin (melicitrin) is also reported
to be present [Christopher, loc. cit.; Mayuranathan, 63; Mitra, C R,
56; Krishna & Badhwar, J sci industr Res, 1948, 7, suppl., 131; Mitra
et al, ibid, 1947, 6B, 19; Mitra, ibid, 1951, 10B, 235; Nigam,
Agra Univ J Res (Sci), 1963, 12, pt I, 299; Brochere-Ferreol et al,
C R Acad Sci Paris, 1958, 246, 3082; Price et al, J chem Soc, 1938,
281; Pankajamani & Seshadri, Proc Indian Acad Sci, 1952, 36A, 157;
Chem Abstr, 1941, 35, 1403; Subramanian & Nair, Indian J Chem, 1972, 10, 452].

The dried leaves powdered are applied locally to the anus of children suffering from intestinal worms.

The flowers are useful in some cases of atonic dyspepsia and general debility.

The gum is a demulcent tonic useful in catarrhal and other affections accompanied by great debility.

Neem oil has been found to be effective in preventing the
multiplication of HIV-virus which causes AIDS. The oil is also
reported to be a potent contraceptive. The emulsified oil     is to
control rust and powdery meldew in plants (East Pharmac, 1992, 35,
79; Stanley, Agric Res Wash, 1991, 39, 21).

A colourless, odourless and nonbitter edible oil has been
extracted from neem oil by removing sulpher compounds that cause
bitterness. A two stage process to extract both azadirachtin and
edible oil from the crude neem oil has been developed at the Central
Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore. Its fatty acid content
is higher than that of palm oil (Res & Industr, 1993, 38, 283).

The flower contains cholesterol and nimbin (Van der Nat, J
Ethnopharmacol, 1991, 35, 1).

When the oil is given as an anthelmintic to humans it
produces nausea and general discomfort. There are some indications
that the oil may be involved in the etiology of Reyes syndrome,
possibly because of a synergistic effect of aflatoxins in the oil
(Koul, et al, Canad J Bot, 1990,  68, 1).

The cake issued as a manure, but the doses differ for each crop. The alcohol-extracted cake is a better nitrogenous manure than unextracted cakeand, by proper processing, manurial value may be increased. Application of the cake increases the yield of cotton; in combination with superphosphate, the yield is much higher. The cake is not only an organic nitrogenous manure, but is an inhibitor of nitrification. This property helps in efficient use of the nitrogenous fertilizers. Urea coated with an extract obtained from the oil regulates the rate of nitrification and increases the yield of grain and straw of wheat. The pulp water, obtained during the depulping of fresh or dry fruits, can be used for manuring and for composting, and increases crop yields. The pulp water contains: nitrogen, 1.2; and phosphoric acid, 0.27% (Ketkar, 1976, 29, 113, 7; Khandelwal, Indian J agric Sci, 1977, 47, 267; Lakshmikantan, 1972; Information from the All-India Non-Edible Oil Industry Association, Pune). The cake gives protection from grain moth, lesser grain borer and red flour beetle. It reduces gall formation; it also helps in the reduction of certain parasitic fungi, of the nematodes in the root tissue and in the egg-laying capacity of the female nematodes. The aqueous extract of the cake inhibits larval emergence of Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica; Pratylenchus sp. is also deterred by this cake. Black scurf of potato can be significantly reduced by adding neem cake to the soil. In combination with nemagone, the cake gives better results than either of them alone. It reduces the occurrence of nematodes in wheat and increases the yield considerably. When applied to sugarcane, potato, cotton and paddy there is a similar increase in yield. It protects crops from termites. A paste made from the cake or the oil-emulsion, when applied to the trunk of orange or other Citrus spp., protects them from pests. Tobacco seedlings are protected from ground beetle when neem cake is applied at the rate of 50 kg/ha to the crop. Azadirachtin and possibly other constituents present have been found to possess systemic action, spreading to all parts of the plant to which the cake is applied (Ketkar, 1976, 156, 173; Muralidhara, loc. cit.; Lakshmikantan, 1972; Information from the All-India Non-Edible Oil Industry Association, Pune; Sinha & Gulati, Bull reg Res Lab, Jammu, 1962-63, 1, 176).

Transplantation of stumps is well known in India. These are prepared from 2 years-old seedlings and are subsequently planted in 30 cm3 pits. Root-ball transplantation is another good method where one year-old seedlings are carefully uprooted along with a ball of soil around the roots and transplanted as soon as possible.

Apart from other techniques, tissue culture techniques have also been tried to propagate the plant and showed some encouraging results such as differentiation of growth centres in callus, root formation in MS medium containing IAA, and callus formation in some African progeny which may provide a basic for future research(Koul et al, Canad J Bot, 1990,68,1).

The major use of neem oil is in the soap industry. Soaps and shampoos prepared from neem oil control ticks and fleas. An Ayurvedic neem shampoo is used for greasy scalp. An Ayurvedic prickly heat powder is also made from neem. A neem face pack is prepared for oily and pimple-prone skin. Tooth powder and toothpaste prepared from neem are effective dentifrice. Patented extract of neem bark Silvose T and Silvose TRS are used as toothpaste and mouth wash, respectively (Koul et al, Canad J Bot, 1990, 68, 1).

Neem has been in use as indigenous medicine since time immemorial. Recently a large number of medicines manufactured from neem has come up in the form of ointments, tablets or injections, etc for curing various ailments. An ointment is prepared from neem for dermatological use. Another neem cream is a fly and mosquito repellent. A wound dressing contains neem oil as one of its active ingredients. It is recommended for only for animals. Neem leaf decoction is used as a galactogogue for initiating milk secretion in nursing mothers and also recommended for diabetes mellitus of adults, nonketonic diabetes, as well as in cases of insulin sensivity. Tablets and injections are being formulated for chronic malaria. A neem leaf preparation is also recommended as a local sedative for external applications.

Neemrich I and Neemrich II developed by the National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, from neem seed act as repellent against the potato tuber moth. Vepacide, a highly antifedant and insect growth regulator has been developed by the Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad. It can be used against armyworm (Mythimnia separata Walk.), spoted stem borer (Chilo partellus Swin), Cotton grey weevil (Myllocerus sp.), head bug (Calocoris angustatus ); and Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura Fab.) (Research & Industry, 1992, 37, 253, 1989, 34, 246).

Considerable quantities of the oil are employed in cosmetic
preparations such as creams, hair-lotions, medicated soaps, washing-
soaps and tooth-pastes; it can be mixed with other oils also for soaps.
It can be used for the production of olein and stearin, and high-
melting stearin after hydrogenation. The oil is also employed in
disinfectants and  emulsifying agents for insecticides. Regular
application of hair-oil containing oil of margosa is reported to
prevent baldness and greying of hair. The seeds also contain an
essential oil which has been found to possess anti-microbial activity.
When sprayed on green gram and bengal gram, the essential oil protects
them from pulse beetle and Callosobruchus sp. (I.P., 1966, 324; Mitra,
Indian Oilseeds J, 1956-57, 1, 256; Bhat et al, ibid, 1956-57, 1,
298; Indian Pat. No. 48529, 48530, 1952; 59295, 1957; 67952, 1959;
Information from Dr C R Mitra, NBRI, Lucknow;  Kirtikar & Basu, I, 538;
Ketkar, 1976, 155, 212; Mitra, C.R., 100; Irvine, 1961, 512; Muralidhara,
Indian Oil Soap J, 1967-68, 33, 298; Rama Rao, 72; Iyengar & Sastry,
Mysore agric J, 1954, 30, 27; Chaurasia & Jain, Indian J Hosp Pharm,
1978, 15, 166; I.P.C., 187).

Major D. B. Spencer in his “Record of Indian Fevers, 1899” writes concerning the therapeutic uses of Neem:—” I have used the leaves, bark, and oil of Neem. All parts of the plant are medicinal.

1. A handful of leaves, crushed and flattened, will make an excellent poultice for boils and sores; its action is stimulant and antiseptic.

2. The dried leaves I have used to preserve books and clothes from vermin. Internally, two ounces of fresh leaves, made into an infusion, with a pint of boiling water, form an exceedingly useful bitter vegetable tonic and alterative. It has a marked action upon the liver.—the stools often become brilliant yellow in colour after its use.

3. This infusion is also valuable in chronic malarial fever, although not so efficacious as the oil. In chronic syphilitic affections it acts as powerful alterative. I have used it also in leprosy, but except perhaps in one case, it had no specific effect upon the disease.

The bark has astringent, antiperiodic and alterative properties and may be used as an infusion in the same way a leaves.

1. Externally, it has stimulant, antiseptic and alterative properties and is very useful in chronic syphilitic sores and indolent ulcers, which show no tendency to heal. If the effect of the pure oil be found too stimulating, it should be diluted with equal parts of some bland oil or even, a weaker strength may be necessary.

2. The oil is also extremely useful as a parasiticide in various cutaneous affections, such as ringworm, scabies and others, where the presence of any kind of parasite may be suspected. It rapidly destroys the parasite and induces a healthy action. When the parasite is in the deeper layers of the skin, it will be necessary to rub the oil well in for perhaps 10 minutes or more at a time. I have used this oil in mange in dogs and found it useful.

3. Internally, the oil in 5-10 minim doses, once or twice a day, is useful in chronic malarial fevers, in syphilis, leprosy and other diseases where an alterative action is indicated. I have used it internally for the last 12 years, chiefly in chronic malarial fevers and have no hesitation in saying that it is a drug of undoubted value in these fevers.”

A tincture of the bark of the stem was administered to cases of malarial fever as an antiperiodic and was found to he useful.

A decoclion of the root bark was also tried in malarial fever and was found to be equally efficacious. An essence in doses varying from 1 to 10 drops in water was given in chronic skin diseases. such as itch, boils, eczema; the drug improved the general condition of the patients and thereby indirectly assisted other methods of treatments adopted in those diseases (Koman).

All the parts of the plant whether given internally or applied externally are equally useless in the treatment of snake-bite (Mhaskar and Caius) and scorpion-sting (Caius and Mhaskar)

Both the leaves and the oil from the seeds are quite ineffective as anthelmintics (Caius and Mhaskar).

The leaves charred according to instruction given 1w local practitioners were found useless in the treatment of leprosy (Caius and Mhaskar).

The chemical composition of the oil has been tile subject of much study. Its bitter principle has been isolated and examined by Watson, Chatterjee and Mukherjee (burn. Soc. Chern. Inn’.; 1923) and by Sen and Banerjee (Journ. md. Chem. Soc.; 1931).

The oil contains a characteristic acid, margosic acid, which belongs to the linolic acid series (Chatterji and Sen). The niargosates are strongly antiprotozoal in their action. Clinical experience has proved the value of sodium margosate in the primary, secondary and tertiary stages of syphilis, also in 1arasyphilis and congenital syphilis (Chatterji and Ray).

According to Roy and Dutt no such acid as margosic acid was found to exist in any portion of the fatty acids derived from Neem oil.

No acid of the linolic acid series could be obtained 16th Ind. Sci Congress; Madras, 1929).

The alkaloid ‘‘ margosine “ is to be found in the stem bark.

It is estimated that India has about 13800000 neem trees with the potential to produce over 83000 tonnes of neem oil and 330000 tonnes of neem cake from 413000 tonnes neem seeds. Single neem tree yields 37-50 kg fruits per year. Forty kilograms of fresh fruits yield nearly 24 kg of dry fruits (60%), which in turn give 11.52 kg of pulp (48%), 101 kg of seed coat (45%), 6.0 kg of husk (25%) and 5.5 kg of kernel (23%). The kernel gives about 2.5 kg of neem oil (45%) and 3.0 kg of neem cake (55%). It has been reported that a 50 years old tree yield @ 51 kg fuel wood in arid areas of Rajasthan. The neem wood is generally considered to be highly resistant to fungi and insect attack and is durable even when used outdoors (Koul et al, Canad J Bot, 1990, 68, 1).

Neem is thought to have originated in Assam in northeast India, and Myanmar, where it is common throughout the central dry zone. Later it became naturally distributed throughout much of the Indian subcontinent, particularly in drier areas.